ABSTRACT
THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2021, vol.32)

Vol.32No.1

◆Ueda, Mizuho (Graduate School of Humanities, Kwansei Gakuin University) & Katsurada, Emiko (Graduate School of Humanities, Kwansei Gakuin University). Positive Empathy Development in Toddlers: Comparison with Negative Empathy Development and Examination of Situational Variables. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.1, 1–10.

This research examines the developmental differences between positive and negative empathy in toddlerhood and how situational variables affect a child's empathetic responses. One hundred and twenty toddlers (1–3 years old) were observed as they performed two positive and two negative empathy tasks. Each task involved either their mothers or an examiner displaying a positive or negative affect as a result of a positive or negative event. The two tasks had clearly different causes for the affect. The children's empathetic responses were evaluated in each task, and results showed that toddlers' self-distress decreased with age in the negative empathy task, while their positive affect increased with age in the positive empathy task but only when the cause of their mothers' or the experimenter's affect was clear. Meanwhile, hypothesis testing hardly increases with age, and praising behaviors were rarely observed in positive empathy tasks. Next, this study's implications and future research directions are discussed.

yKeywordszPositive empathy, Negative empathy, Toddlerhood, Situational factors, Cross-sectional study


◆Koyama, Saori (Faculty of Health Sciences, Hiroshima Shudo University), Moriyama, Masako (Department of Health Sciences Nursing and Education for Children, Aichi Konan College), Kobayashi, Sachiko (Department of Child Studies, Junior College, University of Shizuoka) & Obara, Tomoko (Faculty of Childhood Care and Education, Okazaki Women's University): Cognitive Process of Fathers in Response to Crying Infants. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.1, 11–23.

The study aimed to examine fathers' cognitive process in response to crying infants and investigate how the process changes as two-month-old babies progress in age to be four-months-old. Joint interviews were conducted with 10 pairs of parents when their infants were aged two and then four months. The analysis targeted 60 episodes. The fathers' cognitive processes in response to crying infants were classified into the following patterns: (i) cognitive process of elimination, (ii) iterative cognitive process, (iii) initial interpretation in the cognitive process, (iv) routine cognitive process, (v) trial-and-error cognitive process, and (vi) no cognitive processing. Similar to the case with the mothers, fathers interpreted the cause of infants crying based on “perception” and “situation.” Therefore, the study found that fathers exhibited characteristic patterns in cognitive processing toward infants aged two and then four months. The results suggested that fathers' cognitive processes change (i.e., from (i) cognitive process of elimination to (iii) initial interpretation in the cognitive process and (v) trial-and-error cognitive process) in response to cries of infants aged two and four months.
yKeywordsz Fathers, Perception of infant crying, Joint interviews


◆Takiyoshi, Michika (Faculty of Education, Iwate University) & Tanaka, Mari (Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University):Correlations between Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder and Self-positiveness in Typically Developing Individuals: Changes through Group Work with People with Autism Spectrum Disorder. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.1, 24–36.

This paper examines correlations between understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and self-positiveness in typically developing (TD) individuals. Study 1 applied the literacy scale of ASD characteristics and self-positiveness scale to TD individuals (N＝189). We deduced that TD individuals with a high awareness of ASD-related communication difficulties evaluated themselves as more sensitive regarding their relationship with others. We have discussed whether TD individuals positively or negatively assessed themselves as having proactive or closed attitudes about relationships with others by considering their personality factors. Study 2 examined changes in correlations between understanding ASD and self-positiveness in TD high school students (N＝9), who participated in psycho-dramatic role-playing group work together with ASD individuals for approximately one year. Consequently, changes were indicted in the TD participants' self-affirmation subdomains that correlated with ASD-understanding subdomains. Concretely, TD participants came to understand ASD-related communication difficulties from environmental and individual perspectives. The background of these changes is discussed by considering participants' behaviors and remarks during group work.
yKeywordszAutism spectrum disorder, understanding disorders, self-positiveness, group work


◆Kimura, Minako (Meijo University Teacher Education Center) & Kato, Yoshinobu (Aichi Prefectural University Professor Emeritus):Does a Photograph of a Strawberry Cake Taste as Sweet as the Real One?: Understanding the Representational Nature of Photographs among Four- and Five- year-old Children. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.1, 37–48.

This study investigated whether four- and five-year-old children believe that a photograph has the sensory properties of objects depicted on it (property realism). In Experiment 1, fifteen four-year-old and fifteen five-year-old children were presented with four kinds of real objects (strawberry cake, cactus, rose, and bell) and corresponding colored photographs. Each object was related to four sensory properties, such as taste, touch, smell, and hearing. The participants determined if the sensory properties of the real objects could be attributed to their iconic representations in the photographs. Experiment 2 used the colored and monochrome prints of the same objects with thirty-seven four-year-old and thirty five-year-old children to measure the effect of color on their judgments about property realism. The results revealed that the four-year-old children responded based on property realism, whereas most of the five-year-olds correctly responded that photographs had no sensory properties. Additionally, it was found that colored prints increased property realism than monochrome ones in both age groups.
yKeywordsz Representation, Young children, Photograph, Property realism


Vol.32No.2

◆Jikihara, Yasumitsu (Faculty of Humanities, University of Toyama), Sakano, Yoshitaka (Osaka University of Economics) & Ando, Satoko (Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba). The Continuation Process of Parenting Time by Resident Mothers. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.2, 53-67.

This study aimed to clarify the process through which resident mothers maintained fathers' parenting time with their children following separation or divorce. The narratives of 10 resident mothers who maintained the fathers' parenting visitation time were analyzed using a modified grounded theory approach. The results indicated that upon granting parenting visitation time to the father, mothers had no confidence in their children's interests. Mothers maintained parenting time by wavering between holding expectations for the father and expecting them to desert. Furthermore, mothers alternated between feeling anxious and secure regarding parenting time while not knowing whether the father's parenting time would benefit the child. The following factors also affected the process: feelings of loss, feeling overwhelmed with childcare, and having peer support. The study's results regarding the difficulty of parenting time and the factor of the continuation of parenting time were also discussed.

yKeywordsz Parenting time, Divorce, Resident mother, Modified Grounded Theory Approach


◆Ohno, Aikana (Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University) & Tanaka, Mari (Kyushu University). Cognition of Kawaii in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Focusing on Gaze and Baby Schema in Human and Animal Faces. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.2, 68-78.

This study investigated the cognition of kawaii (cute in English) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), focusing on gaze allocation and baby schema. Individuals with ASD are believed to have a different cognition of kawaii from those who underwent typical development (TD). Previous studies have shown that kawaii causes sociality, with ASD individuals experiencing difficulties in social communication. In the present study, 16 ASD individuals and 24 TD control participants looked at manipulated images of baby schema (manipulated eye size and cheek swelling) and then rated them according to their cuteness, measuring eye gaze with an eye tracker. The results showed that baby schema has no effect in the cuteness cognition of the ASD group, who exhibited shorter eye fixation time in the image than the TD group. In addition, the ASD group looked closely at the eyes of the images they rated as “cute,” suggesting that cute images lead to certain changes in the gaze of ASD individuals.

yKeywordsz Autism spectrum disorder, Cute, Kawaii, Baby schema, Eye tracking


◆Hamada, Megumi (School of Human Care Studies, Nagoya University of Arts and Sciences), Ito, Hiroyuki (College of Contemporary Education, Chubu University), Murayama, Yasuo (The Faculty of Psychology, Kobe Gakuin Univesity), Katori, Mizuho (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University), Takayanagi, Nobuya (Department of Human Health, Aichi Toho University), Nakajima, Takahiro (Asperger Society Japan), Myogan, Mitsunori (School of Psychology, Chukyo University) & Tsujii, Masatsugu (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University). Analyzing the Relationship between Feelings of Gender Dysphoria and Psychological and Social Maladjustment in Elementary and Middle School Students: Determining Cut-Off Points for the Feelings of Gender Dysphoria Scale. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.2, 79-90.

This study seeks to clarify psychological and social maladjustments in children who exhibit strong feelings of gender dysphoria (GD). This study surveyed 58 people who experience persistent feelings of and have been diagnosed with GD as well as 5,221 students (grades 4–9). The GD group answered questions about their feelings during childhood. Receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed 20 points to be the cut-off on the scale. Moreover, 0.82% of boys and 2.02% of girls in elementary schools and 0.60% of boys and 3.27% of girls in middle schools scored over 20. Compared to others, these students displayed higher rates of depression, aggression, peer problems, a desire for thinness, bulimia, self-injury, and delinquent behaviors. Specifically, boys with stronger feelings of GD showed a higher rate of peer problems and abnormal eating behaviors when compared to girls. Therefore, this essay discusses how psychological and social maladjustments are mediated by personal relationships.

yKeywordsz The feeling of gender dysphoria, Elementary and junior high school students, Psychological and social maladjustment


◆Ito, Hiroyuki (College of Contemporary Education, Chubu University), Hamada, Megumi (School of Human Care Studies, Nagoya University of Arts and Sciences), Murayama, Yasuo (The Faculty of Psychology, Kobe Gakuin University), Takayanagi, Nobuya (Department of Human Health, Aichi Toho University), Myogan, Mitsunori (School of Psychology, Chukyo University) & Tsujii, Masatsugu (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University). Longitudinal Effects of Free-time Use on Psychosocial Adjustment in Elementary and Junior High School Students. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.2, 91-104.

The present study comprehensively examined the causal effects of various free-time activities (learning, reading, playing outdoors, viewing television, playing video games, and using cellular phones) on academic achievement and emotional–behavioral adjustment (prosocial behavior, peer relationships, depression, and aggression) using large-scale longitudinal data obtained from 5,408 elementary and junior high school students (2,729 boys and 2,679 girls). Results from the two models (lagged effects and simultaneous effects models) used to test the causal relationships among variables were highly consistent. The findings showed the following: (1) learning and reading positively affected, while playing outdoors negatively affected academic achievement; (2) playing outdoors and learning positively affected, while reading and playing video games (solo playing) negatively affected emotional–behavioral adjustment. These results suggest that indoor activities requiring large amounts of cognitive processing contribute to academic development and that activities performed with friends or parents lead to emotional–behavioral development. Notably, since the above results were not necessarily consistent with previous findings in Western countries, they may reflect sociocultural factors specific to Japan.

yKeywordsz Discretionary Activity, Play, Psychosocial Adjustment, Academic Achievement, Longitudinal Study


Vol.32No.3

◆Kanzaki, Mami (Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization) & Suzuki, Hanako (College of Comprehensive Psychology, Ritsumeikan University). Process of School Nonattendants' Career Decision-making in High School: Understanding School Experiences with the Trajectory Equifinality Modeling. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.3, 113–123.

This study aimed to explain the experiences of high school students who have refused to attend school. Interviews were conducted with four students, and the interview data were analyzed using the trajectory equifinality modeling. This research found that (1) uncontrollable situations surrounding the students discouraged them from attending school; (2) the students' engagement with novels, essays, and online games opened the opportunity to gain their locus of control; (3) the students made friends naturally after entering high school; (4) reliable relationships in school helped them face life-changing events involving the school and the self; and (5) the students' career choices depended on what they want to do, where they want to go, and who they want to be in the future . This study further discussed the use of symbolic resources to comprehend locus of control and the importance of self-oriented experience in career decision-making.

yKeywordszSchool nonattendance, Career decision-making, Trajectory equifinality modeling, Symbolic resource


◆Arai, Motoko (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo). Processes of Self-injuries: A Qualitative Study of Adolescents. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.3, 124–133.

Research on the processes of self-injury is limited. Thus, this study clarifies the probable processes of self-harm in Japan. Twenty-two adolescents were interviewed, and the transcripts were analyzed using the modified grounded theory approach (M-GTA). Participants engaged in various forms of self-harm in response to varying degrees of anxiety. Results indicate that two types of self-harm, namely, elimination self-harm (e.g., hairpulling and skin picking), and invasion self-harm (i.e., cutting and hitting), were prevalent among adolescents. These forms of self-harm were categorized according to the action used to harm the body. This study concludes that certain behaviors of adolescents engaging in minor self-harm may diminish over time. However, those engaging in severe self-harm can seek alternative means of dealing with anxiety, such as talking with friends. To support adolescents in overcoming self-harm and similar behaviors related to anxiety, this study provides useful input concerning the processes of self-harm.

yKeywordszSelf-injury, Process, Adolescent, Qualitative research


◆Kusumi, Yusuke (Research Fellowship for Young Scientists PD, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan, College of Arts, Rikkyo University, Japan), Takatsu, Azusa (School for the Mentally Challenged at Otsuka, University of Tsukuba) & Sato, Yoshitake (School for the Mentally Challenged at Otsuka, University of Tsukuba). Participation Process of Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Classroom Discourse: A Sociocultural Approach. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.3, 134–147.

The paper discusses the classroom discourse participation process of students with intellectual disabilities. In lessons containing activities for independent living in a special education school, we assigned some students with the role of moderators and supported them using an interactive whiteboard. The research subjects were two students with mild intellectual disabilities (MID). We videotaped five lessons and examined them using classroom discourse analysis, focusing on the level of students' initiative in contributing to classroom discourse sequences, their contents as well as the focal points of the eyes of four student observers. Findings revealed that first, the increase in student-led discourse sequence stemmed from changes in the classroom activity system. Second, initiative participation enhanced students' awareness of their role as moderators. Third, students' initiative participation and student observers' acknowledgments were interactive. These suggest that transforming the way of MID students' participation should be regarded as a dynamic process involving multiple actors. This process makes teachers aware of different positive detours of development in children with intellectual disabilities.

yKeywordszStudents with intellectual disabilities, Sociocultural approach, Classroom discourse analysis, Participation, Interactive whiteboard


◆Iguchi, Akiko (Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba), Tabaru, Kei (College of Education, Ibaraki University) & Harashima, Tsuneo (Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba). Relationship between Acquisition of Japanese Manual Alphabet Reading and Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: Comparison with Hiragana. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.3, 148–159.

This longitudinal study examined the acquisition of Japanese manual alphabet (JMA) reading and compared the results with hiragana reading among 3–6-year-old children who are deaf or hard of hearing in preschools for the deaf. The study analyzes the relationship between each JMA and hiragana reading test and a phonological awareness (PA) test, which were conducted three times in one year. The number of JMA readings increased by approximately the age of 4 years. By the age of 5 years, the children could read the entire JMA; the same result was observed for hiragana reading. However, JMA reading in 3–4-year-old children started before the occurrence of their hiragana reading. This finding suggests that compared with hiragana reading, learning hand shapes corresponding to character sounds was easier for the children because JMA is expressed near the mouth and pronounced simultaneously. In addition, their JMA reading test was scored before the PA test. Therefore, many young children who are deaf or hard of hearing could learn character sounds through the JMA and increase their PA development, which can help them read more letters.

yKeywordszChildren who are deaf or hard of hearing, Manual alphabet, Fingerspelling, Hiragana, Phonological awareness


Vol.32No.4

◆AMANO, Taiju (Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University). Neural Circuits Related to the Expression of Parental Behavior. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 171-183.

Parental care is crucial for the survival of young animals. In particular, inappropriate parental behaviors such as abuse and neglect increase the probability of the incidence and severity of mental disorders of the young animals in future. Although the medial preoptic area is known as the most important brain region for controlling parental behavior, it also contributes to various instinctive aspects such as sexual behavior, sleep, and body temperature regulation. The formation of parental behavioral choices remains unclear. Recent advancements in genetic manipulation technologies have enabled the observation and manipulation of specific cell activities in the brains of free-moving animals. Several researchers have investigated the functions and alterations of brain regions associated with parental behavior, including the medial preoptic area. In the present paper, we discuss the latest findings regarding brain function alterations that influence parental behavior and aggression toward their offspring.

yKeywordszParental behavior, Neural circuits, Endocrinology, Aggression


◆MATSUNAGA, Michiko (Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University). Neurophysiological Basis of Human Parenting: Effect of Nurturing Experiences on the Increased Sensitivity of Mothers to Emotional Facial Expressions. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 184-195.

From the first day of life, infants express non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, vocalization, and body movement, to convey their physical state and needs to their caregivers. Such a stimulation from infants triggers parenting behaviors. To perform sensitive and appropriate parenting behaviors, interpreting the emotional state and needs of infants based on non-verbal cues is important for caregivers. In particular, the development of parenthood-related changes in the brain, body, and mind for mothers and fathers begin during pregnancy and continues after childbirth through repeated contact with the infant. Thus, this study aims to demonstrate the neurophysiological basis of parenting behaviors in humans. We present our recent findings on mothers' perception of changes in facial expressions as a result of parenting experience, the factors that determine individual differences, and the emergence of parental brain development in fathers. Lastly, we discuss the possibility of an integrated understanding of parental development and support for parents and children.

yKeywordszParental development, Parenting behavior, Parental brain, Oxytocin hormone, Emotion perception


◆TANAKA, Yukari (Graduate School of Psychology, Kansai University, JSPS Research Fellowship for Young Scientists). Research on the Parental Brain: Toward the Tailor-made Support for the Development of Parenthood. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 196-209.

The collapse of alloparenting, which is an essential parental style of human beings, has resulted in solo parenting. This isolated parenting increases the psychological burden of a parent, which is one of the causes of the declining birthrate. Understanding parenthood and implementing social support are required to reduce isolated parenting. Parenthood has been explored in terms of psychological developmental processes and related factors of parents. In contrast, it has been difficult to evaluate individual differences in parental development from an early stage and to detect risks in parenting. Recent neurophysiological studies have revealed the information processing system of the brain (i.e., the parental brain) that underlies parental development. In this paper, we discuss the definition of the parental brain, individual differences in the development of the parental brain, and the relationship between the parental brain and psychological problems. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of applications for supporting parenthood to fathers based on individual differences in paternal brain development.

yKeywordszParenthood, Parental brain, Individual differences, Tailor-made support


◆FUJISAWA, Takashi (Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui), SHIMADA, Koji (Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui) & TOMODA, Akemi (Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui). Human Parental Brain Function and Interventions for Dysfunction. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 210-218.

This paper reviews the findings of brain imaging studies related to human parenting behavior. To examine brain function in healthy parenting, we first review the basic findings on the neuroendocrine basis of parenting behavior revealed by animal studies and further investigate the involvement of the cortical networks in human parenting behavior. Next, to examine brain dysfunction due to parenting difficulties, the effects of parental stress on brain function are outlined, including the findings of our previous functional brain imaging study. The effects of clinical psychological interventions for parenting dysfunction on behavior and brain function are also examined. Furthermore, to examine brain function during the preparation stage of parenting, research on changes in the brain function of adolescents who become parents are reviewed. Lastly, we propose a perspective on supporting caregivers based on recent advances in neuroscience research.

yKeywordszParenthood, Parenting Behavior, Functional Brain Imaging


◆OSAWA, Naoki (Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University). Toddlerhood and Early Childhood Leading to the Multifaceted Nature of Parenting Practices and Parental Psychological Functions. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 219-232.

Parents of children in their late infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood (preschoolers) are required to play multifaceted roles, such as caregiving and socializing. This study presents a review of previous studies concerning practical research that focuses on caregiving as well as fundamental psychological research that highlights socialization. First, the review outlines the transition process of children into independence through parental support and scaffolding in terms of “fundamental daily habits” (i.e., eating, excreting, sleeping, dressing, and maintaining hygiene). Second, the review introduces the domain-specific approach of socialization and the parental goal-regulation model and discusses the relationship between them from a practical viewpoint. The study suggests that promoting research that emphasizes the importance of self-control in various scenarios and discusses effective roles for each parent is crucial for supporting parenting practices.

yKeywordszParenting practice, Fundamental daily habits, Domain-specificity, Socialization, Self-regulation


◆Nakajima, Takahiro (Asperger Society Japan), Ito, Hiroyuki (Faculty of Core Research Human Science Division, Ochanomizu University), Myogan, Mitsunori (School of Psychology, Chukyo University), Takayanagi, Nobuya (Department of Human Health, Aichi Toho University), Murayama, Yoshio (College of Human and Social Sciences, Kanazawa University), Hamada, Megumi (School of Human Care Studies, Nagoya University of Arts and Sciences), Mizuho, Katori (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University) & Tsujii, Masatsugu (School of Contemporary Sociology, Chukyo University). Autistic traits, mental health, and play during recess in elementary and junior high school students. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 233-244.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of recess as a mediating variable between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits and psychosocial maladjustment in children. The participants were 5,366 pairs of general elementary and junior high school students (grades 4–9) and their parents. A path analysis revealed that the higher the ASD traits, the more time was spent on non-interpersonal play during recess. The results of estimating the extent to which the mediating variable, recess time, explained the association between ASD traits and psychosocial maladjustment showed that the indirect effect via recess play ranged from 20% to 60% of the total indirect effects (recess time + friendships) and from 20% to 40% of the total effects (direct effects + indirect effects). Although recess play was regarded as one of the subcomponents of friendship, it explained 65% of the indirect effects of prosocial behavior, 46% of depression, and 26% of aggression, suggesting that the role of recess in friendship is exceptionally large. We consider that psychosocial maladjustments are mediated by recess.

yKeywordszAutism spectrum disorder traits, Recess, Elementary and junior high school students, Psychosocial maladjustment


◆Terasaka, Akiko (Division of General Education, Osaka Kyoiku University), Inada, Naoko (Department of Psychology, Teikyo University) & Shimoda, Yoshiyuki (Graduate School of Teacher Education, Saga University). Effectiveness of an Anger Management Program for Elementary School Children: A Preliminary Evaluation in Small Groups for Classroom Implementation. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 245-254.

This study evaluated the preliminary effectiveness of implementing Ikari Yawaraka Lesson, a universal anger management program comprising five 45-min lessons, in small groups. It recruited 25 elementary school students in Grades 3–6 from two locations and assessed their comprehension of program contents, self-reported anger and aggression, and parent-reported aggression before and one month after the implementation, as well as the frequency of use of learned anger management skills one month after the implementation. The results indicated that students mostly understood the program contents. Therefore, it was appropriate for elementary school children in Grades 3–6. Additionally, the study observed overall reductions in self- and parent-reported aggression scores after the implementation. A group difference was noted for changes in self-reported aggression scores. Children's comprehension of program contents correlated only with self-reported hostility among the anger and aggression scores one month after the implementation. Future directions include evaluating the effectiveness of the program in attaining the goal of universal education through its implementation in regular classrooms.

yKeywordszAnger management, Elementary school children, Universal, Prevention education, Effectiveness


◆Nakama, Reiko (Graduate School of Education, Hyogo University), Sugimura, Kazumi (Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University), Hatano, Kai (Development Center for Higher Education, Osaka Prefecture University), Mizokami, Shinichi (Teaching and Learning Institute, Toin University of Yokohama) & Tsuzuki, Manabu (Faculty of Letters, Chuo University). The Outset of Identity Development during Adolescence: An Investigation on Students' Identity Development from Late Childhood to Middle Adolescence. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2021, Vol.32, No.4, 255-266.

Recent studies on identity development process have reported that identity achievement occurs after early adulthood. Nevertheless, certain changes in early adolescence can mark the beginning of identity development. Thus, this study examines the state of identity from late childhood to middle adolescence and explores the aspects of self-consciousness related to identity development. The study recruited 2,092 students from the sixth year of elementary school to the third year of high school. States of identity were measured using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS). The mean of the DIDS sub-scores and the proportion of identity statuses for each grade demonstrated that identity awareness increased with the increase in year level during the junior high and high school. Initially, identity awareness decreased to the lowest status during the first year of junior high school. Moreover, DIDS scores were significantly positively correlated with private self-consciousness. In summary, this study found that the process of identity development begins upon entering junior high school and is associated with the stimulation of private self-consciousness.

yKeywordszIdentity development, Identity status, A trait of self-consciousness, Early adolescence