ABSTRACT
THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (2019, vol.30)


Vol.30 No.1

◆Takeda, Toshinobu (Faculty of Letters, Ryukoku University), Komasa, Hironori (Faculty of Letters, Ryukoku University) & Goshiki, Toru (Faculty of Letters, Ryukoku University): Two-Way Crossover Study of an Organization Skills Intervention for University Freshmen. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.1, 1-10.

Organization is largely categorized into materials organization and temporal organization. While university years are a period during which students can more fully express their potential, substantial changes from their high school years raise their level of vulnerability. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in particular are highly likely to experience a range of difficulties. In this study, an organization skills improvement program was developed for implementation eight times in the first or second semesters of university, and conducted for 10 to 15 minutes in a lecture. Its effects were verified with crossover design. Participants were 77 freshmen (males, 26). Of them, 33 underwent the program in the first semester and 19 had an ADHD trait. Generally, self-rated organization scale total scores and scores of two out of three subscales, organization difficulty and time management difficulty, showed significant improvement after the program, with some contradictory findings. In addition, the results did not support the hypothesis that persons with ADHD have poor reaction to short-term programs. There were also some fields in which significant improvements were not seen, and qualitative analysis of the effectiveness of the program has not been done. Despite these limitations, interventions aimed at supporting organization skills, especially for university students with ADHD, should be developed and optimized in the future to meet the increasing demands for such approaches.
yKeywordsz Organization, Time management, ADHD, Intervention study, University freshmen


◆Sasaki, Mie (Faculty of Humanities, Saitama Gakuen University): Mental Health of Preschool Teachers in Childcare under Earthquake and Radiation Disaster Conditions: A Study Focusing on the Efficacy of Preschool Teachers as a Resilience Factor. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.1, 11-22.

This study is aimed to focus on the efficacy of preschool teachers as a resilience factor under disaster conditions after the Great East Japan Earthquake and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. A self-administered questionnaire was implemented, targeting preschool teachers in 20 private preschools in City A in Fukushima Prefecture a year after the disaster. Seventy six teachers responded of which, 73 were effective for the analysis. The survey content included preschool teachers' efficacy, childcare burden in earthquake and radiation disasters, and mental health. As a result, it was suggested that managers felt the burden of perceived differences with colleagues over radiation problems more strongly than the group with shorter childcare experience. In a Multiple Group Structural Equation Modeling, it was suggested that regardless of childcare experience, preschool teachers' efficacy is an inhibitory factor of depression either directly or through the suppression of the burden of childcare in the disasters. On the basis of the results, I consider the usefulness of peer support networks that go beyond preschools supporting managers and development of training programs, including disaster childcare.
yKeywordsz The Great East Japan Earthquake, The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant disaster, Preschool teachers, Preschool teachers' efficacy, Mental health


◆Nakashima, Misuzu (Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Department of Clinical Research, Hizen Psychiatric Center), Inada, Naoko (Department of Literature, Teikyo University), Tanigawa, Yoshie (Staff Consultation Room, Fukuoka Prefecture), Yamashita, Masako (Ohori Psychiatric Clinic), Maeda, Emi (Kaname Clinic), Kouguchi, Megumi (Department of Health Welfare, Seinan Jo Gakuin University), Yano, Hiroyuki (Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University), Ikari, Keisuke (Department of Liaison Psychiatry, Iizuka Hospital), Kuga, Hironori (School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University), Oribe, Naoya (Department of Clinical Research, Hizen Psychiatric Center), Kaname, Hitoshi (Kaname Clinic), Harada, Tsuyoshi (Parkside Kokoro-no-Hattatu Clinic), Ueno, Takefumi (Department of Clinical Research, Hizen Psychiatric Center), Sarada, Yoko (Department of Humanities, Fukuoka University) & Kuroki, Toshihide (Faculty of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University): A Pilot Study on the Efficacy of Group Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Focusing on Time Management. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.1, 23-33.

This study aims to examine the efficacy of group cognitive behavioral therapy designed to enhance time management in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The eight participants were aged 20-65 years (average: 39.80 years; 7:1 female to male) and had a DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of ADHD. Eight 90-minute-sessions comprising six life scenarios, where patients with ADHD have difficulty in time management, were conducted. Each participant and their family answered a questionnaire at pre-treatment (T1), post-treatment (T2), and two-month follow-up (T3). Regarding self-report, participants demonstrated significant reduction in inattention/memory problems, impulsivity/emotional lability, DSM-IV inattentive symptoms, and DSM-IV total ADHD symptoms from T1 to T2 and from T1 to T3, as measured by Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scales (CAARS). The patient scores were below clinical cutoff for all subscales at T3. For families' evaluations, significant improvement in inattention/memory was observed from T1 to T3. Subjective and objective efficacy of the intervention program was observed; the timing and perception of recognizing the therapeutic effect were different for the patients and their families.
yKeywordsz Group cognitive behavioral therapy, Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Executive dysfunction, Time management, Adults


◆Shirai, Toshiaki (Department of Psychology, Osaka Kyoiku University). Construction of Self-continuity in a Young Subject with Acquired Disability: Narrative Analysis Using the Prospective Restructuring Method): Ters. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.1, 34-43.

A 24-year-old male who suffered motor disabilities due to a spinal cord injury from 7 years ago and who is currently capable of independent mobility was asked to tell about his experience in the acute and rehabilitation stages. His self-narrative was analyzed using the Prospective Restructuring Method (Shirai, 2015). The results showed that he constructed his self-continuity in three ways: 1) Defining his traumatic experience as commonplace and socially standard; 2) Attributing his own unchangingly worry-free personality to reflecting that he had “no time to worry” during his tiring days as an inpatient and generalizing from this; and 3) Temporal articulation—describing his pain at the emergency hospital in the past tense and his recovery at the rehabilitation hospital in the present tense. Temporal articulation allowed the subject to sort his traumatic experiences within his memories, thereby offering the possibility for him to construct a more elaborated meaning for his acquired disability in the future. Since this is a single-case study, more case studies are required to generalize the findings.
yKeywordsz Identity, Self-continuity, Acceptance of disability, Narrative, Adolescence/Youth


◆Iwata, Miho (Faculty of Education, Chiba University): Development of Young Children's Pragmatic Functions of Emotional Utterances of “Omoshiroi (Interest)” and “Tanoshii (Joy)” in Close Peer Relationships: The Contribution of Utterances to Their Relationships. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.1, 44-56.

The study investigated young children who use emotional utterances of “omoshiroi (interest)” and “tanoshii (joy),” in the context of play interactions with peers to whom they are emotionally close. Two cohorts of three- to five-year-olds were observed in kindergarten over a period of three years (Time 1 to Time 5). We focused on the pragmatic functions of the utterances including such utterances in interactions in terms of how it contributes to their relationships. The results indicated that children expanded and developed relationships by sharing their interests (Time 1), used more persuasive and effective methods of appealing to peers (Time 2), adjusted their relationships according to their own feelings and those of others (Time 3), shared emotional experiences from the past (Time 4), and shared the same emotional experiences and realized the play according to their future expectations (Time5) in peer play communication, using the abovementioned utterances. The results highlight the significance of the utterances “omoshiroi (interest)” and “tanoshii (joy)” in the development of social and emotional competence in close peer relationships.
yKeywordsz Social development, Emotional competence, Emotional utterance, Pragmatic function of utterance, Close peer relationship


Vol.30 No.2

Hirosawa, Aiko (Faculties of Fukui), Takezawa, Tomohiro (The National Institute of Vocational Rehabilitation), Oda, Asami (United Graduate School of Professional Development of Teachers, University of Fukui, Nara Women's University and Gifu Shotoku Gakuen University), Suzuki, Shizuka (United Graduate School of Professional Development of Teachers, University of Fukui, Nara Women's University and Gifu Shotoku Gakuen University) & Ogoshi, Sakiko (National Institute of Technology, Fukui College). The Interactive Process between Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Therapists: Participation Observation Analysis of Therapy Sessions for Developing Social Behavior. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.2, 61–73.

The study involved quantitative and qualitative analysis of the interaction between children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and therapists. The data were collected by means of participant observation of group therapy sessions. Results included the following four findings: (1) the therapists functioned as mediators between the children while mutual trust among group members was established; (2) the therapists provided in-depth support to help children collaborate with each other after sufficient trust had been developed; (3) toward the end of group therapy sessions, increased social behavior could be observed in each child, as exhibited by their attitudes toward the self-other boundary and their collaborative participation ; and (4) the process of social development was observed along three dimensions -from self-centeredness to understanding others, from a marginal to center position, and from isolation to greater engagement with others. Future studies should examine more closely the difference between children with ASD and typically developing children with regard to the process of developing self-other understanding.
yKeywordsz Autism spectrum disorder, Social development, Self-other understanding, Participant observation


Chishima, Yuta (Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto University, Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science) & Moro, Teruo (Yuki First High School). Effects of a School Camp Program on Children's Expectations and Concerns about Transition to Junior High School: Focusing on Tendency to be Absent from School. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.2, 74–85.

This study examined the effects of a school camp program on children's expectations and concerns about transition to junior high school. At the camp, 6th grade children from several elementary schools, who were supposed to enter the same junior high school, participated in communication activities and lectures provided by junior high school teachers. A preliminary questionnaire survey was conducted with 180 children to develop a scale to measure expectations and concerns regarding transition to junior high school. Factor analyses indicated that a four-factor model to measure expectations and concerns regarding both academic and social areas showed the best fit, displaying high reliability and validity. Next, main surveys to examine the effects of the school camp were conducted with 155 6th grade children. Participants' expectations and concerns were measured with pre-, post-, and follow-up tests. Results showed that children who wanted to spend school time at the infirmary or in a counseling room increased expectations of new friendships at junior high school. These effects continued after three months.
yKeywordsz Children, School transition, School camp, Expectations, Concerns



Jikihara, Yasumitsu (Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba) & Ando, Satoko (Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba). Children's Experiences with Regard to Parental Conflict and Co-parenting after Separation or Divorce. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.2, 86–100.

This study aimed at exploring and identifying forms of parental conflict and co-parenting after separation or divorce. A total of 14 men and women—with children in their late teens and parents in their 40s—were interviewed. Their responses were categorized on the basis of the interview content, generating the following types of parental conflict: “bad-mouthing,” “caught between parents,” and “ongoing quarrels,” as well as parental cooperation in terms of “economic support,” “parenting time,” and “trust between parents.” We performed a correspondence analysis, which grouped responses into three types—“cooperation/continuation of parenting time,” “caught between parents/interruption of parenting time,” and bad-mouthing/no parenting time.” Case studies were conducted to compare each type with the experiences and significance of divorce. In the latter two groups, while many felt that they had experienced a negative influence, there were also many who felt positively about the divorce of their parents.
yKeywordsz Divorce, Children, Parental Conflict, Cooperative Parenting, Parenting time



Kusumi, Yusuke (Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo). Learning Processes of a Student with Moderate Intellectual Disability and Teacher Feedback in Lessons with a Money Management Task: A Socio-cultural Approach. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.2, 101–112.

This study aims to analyze—from a socio-cultural perspective—learning processes of students with moderate intellectual disabilities (MOID) and characteristics of teacher feedback when supporting such students. Interactions of an MOID student participant were analyzed within the context of seven mathematics lessons, which showed that the teacher's feedback of requesting the student to solve problems independently while maintaining a high level of motivation made the participant more proactive in solving tasks. Time lags were also observed between the beginning of the lessons and that of the student's proactive actions, as well as between the beginning of the proactive actions and the first correct answer. The student's performance showed an increasing potential for giving correct answers. These findings suggest that it is important to provide long-term support for students' active learning and to focus on their learning process so as to evaluate the potential for giving correct answers.
yKeywordsz moderate intellectual disabilities, socio-cultural approach, feedback, agency, mathematics


Vol.30 No.3

Murai, Fumika (Division of Medical Imaging and Technology, Psychiatry and Neurology, Hokkaido University Hospital), Okamoto, Yuko (Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University), Ota, Masayoshi (Faculty of Education, Tokoha University) & Kato, Hiromichi (Graduate School of Education, Hokkaido University). Relationship between Friendship with Self-Acknowledged Kyara and Approval Motivation with Fear of Negative Evaluation in Adolescence. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.3, 121–131.

Most contemporary adolescents discuss relationships with their friends by using kyara, a shortened form of the Japanese pronunciation of the English word “character.” This study examined the relationship between friendship with kyara and approval motivation or fear of being negatively evaluated in a comparison of junior high school and university students. In all, 434 junior high school students and 219 university students participated in the study and completed a questionnaire. The results suggested that the university students use kyara at higher rate in their friendship than junior high school students did, and those who incorporated kyara scored higher on praise seeking than those who did not. Factor analysis identified three factors that are part of the acceptance of kyara: active acceptance, rejection, and indifference. An analysis indicated that praise seekers exhibited kyara, and praise seeking was related to the active acceptance of kyara. On the contrary, those with a sense of fear of negative evaluations tended to reject kyara. These results were found regardless of the students' educational level.
yKeywordszFriendship, Kyara, Approval motivation, Fear of negative evaluation


Orikasa, Kuniyasu (Koriyama Women's University) & Shoji, Ichiko (Human Care Science Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences University of Tsukuba). Relationship between Sense of Authenticity and Sense of Superiority with School Adjustment among Junior High School Students: Combinations of Sense of Authenticity and Contingent Self-esteem. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.3, 132–141.

This study explores the self-esteem of junior high school students as a product of the sense of authenticity and contingent self-esteem to determine how this product affects school adjustment. Self-esteem was classified into four types, based on combinations of students' sense of authenticity and superiority. We examined 676 students in the first to third years of junior high school. Our hypothesis was partially supported: no difference in the ratio of appearance of these two factors according to academic year was observed in the four types of combination of the senses of authenticity and superiority. Further, the sense of authenticity affected school adjustment more significantly than the sense of superiority did. Additionally, students with both a high sense of authenticity and a high sense of superiority had good social skills and exhibited the highest level of school adjustment, indicating the importance of a balance between these senses of self-esteem for junior high school students.
yKeywordszJunior high school students, Sense of authenticity, Sense of superiority, Self-esteem, School adjustment




Otani, Takashi (Kyoto International Social Welfare Exchange Centre), Shimizu, Satomi (Heian Jogakuin University), Goma, Hideyo (Himeji University), Okubo, Junichiro (Tezukayama University) & Shimizu, Hiroyuki (Kobe Gakuin University). An Evaluation of the Developmental Stages of Young Children's Judgments in Rock-Paper-Scissors Games. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.3, 142–152.

The Rock-Paper-Scissors game is used as a way of making specific decisions based on incidental outcomes. The present study aimed to investigate how children acquire the underlying cognitive functions to play the game relating to understanding of “three-way deadlock structure” through developmental processes. There were 569 children (age range＝12–83 months) who were evaluated. In this study, the task consisted of three subtasks: (1) “understanding rock-paper-scissors symbols”; (2) “judgment of winning”; and (3) “judgment of losing”. We evaluated the children's developmental levels using the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development-2001(KSPD2001). Children aged 2.6 years had a 50% success rate in passing the first task, for the second task the age at which the 50% success rate was achieved was 4.8 years, and for the third task it was 5.4 years. Significant correlations were confirmed between the developmental age assessed in the KSPD2001 and the five stages of understanding the game. The results suggest that this task is useful to evaluate specific children's stages in understanding the game, and to assess developmental levels of young children.
yKeywordszRock-Paper-Scissors task, Developmental stages, A three-way deadlock structure, Young children




Ogura, Tamiko (Graduate School of Child Care Studies, Osaka University of Comprehensive Children Education), Masuda, Tamami (Graduate School of Child Care Studies, Osaka University of Comprehensive Children Education), Hamabe, Naoko (), Hirai, Junko (Health and Welfare Center of Yamashina and Fukakusa in Kyoto City) & Miyata, Susanne (Department of Health and Medical Sciences, Aichi Shukutoku University). Lexical Properties of Infant-directed Speech of Japanese Mothers and Children's Linguistic Development. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.3, 153–165.

This study revealed features in the lexical aspect of infant-directed speech (IDS) by analyzing five minute speech samples of 158 mothers of children aged 9, 12, 14, 18, 21, and 24 months. IDS was divided into four baby talk types; onomatopoeia, baby-form words (further divided into nouns, verbal nouns, adjectives, and communicators), addition of a suffix, and phoneme conversion. The frequency of types and tokens per utterance unit was calculated. Only onomatopoeia showed a significant difference among the age groups. High frequency of onomatopoeia repetition and onomatopoeia markers with special morae were observed. Verbal nouns were significantly more frequent in baby-form words, and phoneme conversion (e.g.: doozo → doojo) occurred as well. The follow-up survey with 127 children from the original group at 33 months revealed the effect of IDS on children's linguistic development. The frequency of baby-form words aged 14 months predicted productive conventional-form words at 33 months. According to its iconicity, baby-form words may have a role in providing a foundation for children to learn rules of arbitrary connections between words and objects.
yKeywordszinfant-directed speech, onomatopoeia, baby-form words, lexical development




Vol.30 No.4

Tsuchida, Noriaki (College of Comprehensive Psychology, Ritsumeikan University) & Sakata, Yoko (Faculty of Psychology, Aichi Shukutoku University). Development of Executive Functions Across the Life Span: Focusing on Inhibition. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 176–187.

Executive functions are a type of high-level mental functions that are easily affected by aging, although they take a long time to develop. When seen from the perspective of the lifetime, executive functions seem to be hardly consolidated and easily deteriorate. Moreover, it is considered that they are affected by various developmental disorders. This study examined the development and decline of executive functions mainly from the perspective of “inhibition of responses.” Firstly, the characteristics of executive functions are discussed from the standpoint of predictability, malleability, and correlation. Inhibitory functions, which are considered the most fundamental factors of executive functions, are examined in relation to other functions, and previous studies that classified inhibition into different types are introduced. Secondly, various problems of executive functions seen in typical and atypical development are reviewed. Thirdly, relevant studies on social, linguistic, and experiential factors, are introduced, by explaining that each factor is essential for the development of inhibitory functions. Finally, future issues for studies in the development of inhibitory functions are discussed.
yKeywordsz Executive function, Inhibition, Inhibitory function, Development, Aging


Yuzawa, Masamichi (Hiroshima University). Development of Working Memory and Learning Among Elementary and Junior High School Students: Support for Difficulties in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic issues. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 188–201.

One of the main functions of working memory involves keeping in mind a plan and purpose during a task. Learning is a purpose-oriented activity and supported by the function of working memory. Working memory is measured through tasks a participant is required to memorize and manage using speech or visual-spatial information. The capacity of working memory increases linearly from infancy to adolescence. However, students with developmental disorders could have some issues with working memory for different reasons. As working memory is the main factor supporting learning language and mathematics, students with issues related to working memory would also have issues concerning learning language and mathematics. Many researchers now believe that training in working memory is fruitless. Therefore, it is important to recognize the characteristics of children with specific developmental issues by assessing working memory and providing appropriate support
yKeywordsz Working memory, Development, Developmental disorders, Learning, Elementary and junior high school students


Moriguchi, Yusuke (Kyoto University). Neural Basis of the Development of Executive Function. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 202–207.

This article reviews recent advances of research on neural basis of the development of executive function (EF). EF refers to the ability to control thought, action, and emotion. Recently, a framework of hot/cool distinction in EF has been proposed. According to this framework, hot EF includes processes elicited under affective conditions, such as a delay of gratification, which is in contrast to cool EF that works in neutral, non-affective situations such as cognitive shifting. In this article, I first reviewed the behavioral development of both aspects of EF. Then, the neural basis of hot and cool EF in adults was introduced. Specifically, the lateral prefrontal cortex and the reward system are related to hot EF whereas the lateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex are related to cool EF. Finally, I introduce children's and adolescent's studies about the neural basis of the development of hot and cool EF and its disorders.
yKeywordsz executive function, development, prefrontal cortex, preschool, adolescence


Yanaoka, Kaichi (Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Japanese Society for Promotion of the Science). Complementary Relationships between Executive Functions and the Acquisition of Routines in Young Children. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 208–218.

Our daily life is composed of several sequential actions that we perform routinely. When children start to learn the action sequences of morning preparation in their kindergarten school, executive functions are needed to control their behaviours. As they repeatedly perform the sequences, they will acquire the routines and come to perform the morning preparation without top-down control. However, the deviations from the acquired routines potencially make them control their bahviours again. As with this example, both excutive funtions and routines mutually shape our goal-directed behaviours. This article aimed to the cognitive processes underlying the performance of goal-directed behaviours in young children, from the viewpoint of the relationships between executive functions and the acquisition of routines. We reviewed developmental evidence about the association of executie functions with routines in both infants and preschoolers. Based on the review, we proposed the complementary relationships between executive functions and routines in preschoolers, which was not true of infants. Finally, we discussed the theoretical impact of our proposal on the previous studies about executive functions and working memory training.
yKeywordsz Executive functions, Routines, Complementation, Young children


Ikeda, Yoshifumi (Joetsu University of Education). Typical and Atypical Development of Inhibition in School-age Children. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 219–230.

Intelligent behavior relies on the ability to activate task-relevant information as well as the ability to suppress task-irrelevant information. Although inhibitory processes have been largely overlooked within the field of intelligence, there is a growing interest in inhibition, with studies suggesting its important role in executive functions. Inhibition is not a unitary function; rather, it is a multifaceted function including inhibition at the input, intermediate, and output stages of information processing. Previous studies suggest that various types of inhibition develop largely during school-age. Moreover, inhibitory deficits have been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, specific learning disorder, and intellectual disability. Given the relationship between inhibitory deficits and difficulties in academic performance and in the daily lives of children with neurodevelopmental disorders, inhibition is presumed to be an important factor for intelligent behaviors. Further investigations are necessary to elucidate the developmental mechanism of inhibition and facilitate intervention in children with weak inhibitory control.
yKeywordsz cognitive control, executive functions, working memory, neurodevelopmental disorders, special needs education


Saeki, Erina (Kobe Yamate University). Executive Function Underpinning Cognitive Flexibility in Adolescence and Adulthood. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 231–243.

In multitasking situations, flexible switching between tasks is required for reaching goals correctly and efficiently. The executive function underpinning this type of mental flexibility is called the shifting function, which is measured traditionally using the Wisconsin card sorting test. More recently, the task-switching paradigm was developed to measure this function. This article reviews studies that used the task-switching paradigm and addresses the cognitive processes that underlie task-switching performance in adolescents and adults. First, the various experimental protocols of task switching and the cognitive processes that are involved in task-switching performance are reviewed. Second, the specific aspects of the cognitive processes of mental flexibility that develop during adolescence are discussed. Finally, the cognitive issues of mental flexibility in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are considered. The task-switching paradigm has provided new insights into the development (and disorder) of mental flexibility, and fine-grained experimental manipulations have led to a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes involved in this mental mechanism.
yKeywordsz mental flexibility, executive function, task switching, shifting, inhibition


Kuratomi, Kei (Aichi Shukutoku University). Stimulus–response Compatibility Paradigm and Aging. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 244–252.

This article challenges the concept of an aging effect on inhibition as reflected in cognitive tasks and proposes a measurement metric other than task performance for measuring inhibition. In general, the stimulus–response compatibility paradigm is used to measure inhibition on the cognitive tasks. In this paradigm, inhibition is indicated by the compatibility effect, measured by the difference between performance under conflict and that under non-conflict conditions. An increase in the compatibility effect reflects a decrease in inhibition. Previous studies have suggested that inhibition decreases with aging due to decreased executive function. However, comparisons of young adults' and elderly adults' task performance have been inconsistent. This article first explains how the compatibility effect arises from the stimulus–response compatibility paradigm and describes how inhibition is reflected in various tasks. Next, studies on the aging effect in each task are reviewed. Finally, the present article proposes a novel method to examine the aging effect on inhibition that does not relay on measures of task performance such as reaction time and error rate.
yKeywordsz Inhibition, Stimulus-response compatibility paradigm, Aging


Yuzawa, Masamichi (Hiroshima University), Kuranaga, Hitomi (Shiga University), Saito, Satoru (Kyoto University), Minakuchi, Keigo (St. Catherine University), Watanabe, Daisuke (Otani University) & Morita, Aiko (Hiroshima University). Development of a Working Memory Assessment Test for Children in a Group. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 253–265.

Working memory plays a central role in the learning of language and mathematics, and children with learning disorders often have problems in working memory. It is important to find out students with a problem in working memory and make an intervention for them as early as possible. Therefore, in this study, we made working memory tests that students at elementary and junior high school could conduct with a computer in a group. The working memory tests were composed of eight tasks, each two of which assessed four dimensions of working memory: verbal short-term, verbal working, visuo-spatial short-term, and viso-spatial working memories. The scores of the tests were highly correlated with those of AWMA (Alloway, 2007), and the WM Rating ScaleiAlloway, Gathercole, & Kirkwood, 2009j. Students attending public elementary and junior high school located around Japan conducted the tests, and we analyzed the data. The data did not fit the model supposing an independent factor of the central executive, but fit the model with only verbal and visual factors. The tests we made seemed to reflect the function of the central executive highly.
yKeywordsz working memory, assessment, tests, learning, children


Yuzawa, Miki (Notre dame Seishin University), Yuzawa, Masamichi (Hiroshima University) & Kuranaga, Hitomi (Shiga University). Working Memory and the Difficulty of Learning among Elementary and Junior High School Students: Working Memory Assessments on the Web. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 266–277.

Previous research indicates that working memory is closely related to learning, and that children with developmental disorders often have problems in working memory. In this study, we assessed the working memory of 372 elementary and junior high school students with some difficulties of learning on the web. We analyzed the relationships between the domains of learning difficulties and the dimensions of working memory: a verbal short-term memory, a verbal working memory, a visuo-spatial short-term memory, and a visuo-spatial working memory. A low score of each dimension of working memory has significant relations with the learning of specific skills and knowledge in Japanese and mathematics. Children with learning difficulties did not necessarily have poor working memory. Some children seemed to have the difficulties of learning because of poor working memory, some did because of the characteristics of disorders, and others did because of the interaction of both poor working memory and the characteristics of disorders.
yKeywordsz Working memory, Learning, Children, Developmental disorders, Assessment


Ozawa, Ikumi (Hiroshima University, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), Yuzawa, Masamichi (Hiroshima University), Fukuya, Izumi (Yamaguchi Junior College), Oda, Mami (Hiroshima University), Fukumaru, Natsuko (Fukuoka Kodomo Junior College), Kajiki, Ikuko (Hiroshima University) & Koike, Kaoru (Hiroshima University). Predicting Elementary School Children's Difficulty to Read and Write Using Working Memory. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 278–287.

Reading and writing are basic skills for learning. Research has revealed that working memory is related to learning these skills. In Study 1, we developed an assessment test for working memory and administered it to first graders at the start of primary school. The test comprised non-word comparison tasks that assessed verbal working memory and visual array comparison tasks that evaluated visuospatial working memory. Children with scores below the 10th percentile obtained higher ratings on the Working Memory Rating Scale and lower scores in phonological awareness skills than children with scores above the 10th percentile. This reveals the validity of the test. In Study 2, we proposed that the first graders' assessment test scores would predict these children's reading and writing performance 1–2 years later. The working memory assessment test was expected to help identify and support children who may experience future difficulties in reading and writing.
yKeywordsz working memory, assessment, Japanese, reading and writing


Ikeda, Ayaka (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University), Uozato, Fumihiko (Faculty of Letters, Kyoto University) & Itakura, Shoji (Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University). Examination of the Effect of Picture-book Reading on Crime Prevention. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 288–298.

Understanding how to enhance children's danger perception is one of the most important challenges in developmental psychology. Although the effect of picture-book reading on children's language and social cognitive development has been investigated extensively, it remains unclear whether picture-book reading has an effect within the context of crime prevention. We examined if picture-book reading would improve the ability to recognize dangerous situations in 4- to 6-year-old children. We also explored the relationship between tendencies to feel empathy for others and learning effectiveness of picture-book reading. In the study, children were asked what to do when addressed by a stranger and the reasons behind it, both before and after the picture-book reading session. The children proposed more appropriate danger-avoidance behaviors and plausible reasons after the picture-book reading session, and this facilitation effect was greater in older children. Children with higher empathy tended to benefit more from picture-book reading. The developmental changes in the effect of picture-book reading on danger perception and the practical applications of the results are discussed.
yKeywordsz Danger perception, Children, Picture-book reading, Empathy


Fujisaki, Machiyo (Institute of Psychological Research, Meijigakuin University), Sugimoto, Mariko (Faculty of Education, Teikyo University) & Ishii, Tomiko (Rissho University, Emeritus Professor). Construction of Dialogical Relationships between Researchers and Collaborators in a Life-span Longitudinal Study: An Exploratory Model. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 299–314.

Understanding how to enhance children's danger perception is one of the most important challenges in developmental psychology. Although the effect of picture-book reading on children's language and social cognitive development has been investigated extensively, it remains unclear whether picture-book reading has an effect within the context of crime prevention. We examined if picture-book reading would improve the ability to recognize dangerous situations in 4- to 6-year-old children. We also explored the relationship between tendencies to feel empathy for others and learning effectiveness of picture-book reading. In the study, children were asked what to do when addressed by a stranger and the reasons behind it, both before and after the picture-book reading session. The children proposed more appropriate danger-avoidance behaviors and plausible reasons after the picture-book reading session, and this facilitation effect was greater in older children. Children with higher empathy tended to benefit more from picture-book reading. The developmental changes in the effect of picture-book reading on danger perception and the practical applications of the results are discussed.
yKeywordsz Danger perception, Children, Picture-book reading, Empathy


Hirai, Mika (School of International Liberal Arts, Yokohama City University), Hasegawa, Mai (Yokohama City University) & Takahashi, Keiko (University of the Sacred Heart). Deepening College Students' Understanding of Child Poverty through Television Program Viewing. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 315–328.

This study examined the effects of viewing a public television program about child poverty on college students' levels of understanding and social awareness. Thirty-three college students participated in an experiment consisting of three sessions, which were repeated once a week, for three weeks (Times 1 to 3). Each session consisted of (1) watching a different video from a series of programs on child poverty, (2) writing an essay concerning their impressions of and comments on the video, and (3) having a group discussion about the video. The effects of these sessions were assessed by measuring (1) recall of video contents and knowledge of poverty, (2) change in level of understanding of child poverty, evaluated at four levels, (3) change in level of social awareness and approval of children's living necessities, (4) maintenance of knowledge and social awareness at six months post-experiment. Analyses indicated that (1) participants referred to approximately 60% of the video contents, (2) understanding of child poverty increased, (3) social awareness increased, (4) increases in knowledge and social awareness were maintained after six months, with some participants reporting behavioral changes such as new volunteering activities, however, (5) approval of children's living necessities did not change.
yKeywordsz Child poverty, Television program viewing, Living necessities, Societal cognition, College students


Miura, Yui (Institute for Education and Student Support, Ehime University), Matsui, Tomoko (Center for Research in International Education, Tokyo Gakugei University), Fujino, Hiroshi (Graduate School of Teacher Education, Tokyo Gakugei University), Tojo, Yoshikuni (Department of Education, Ibaraki University), Hakarino, Koichiro (Musashino Higashi Center for Education and Research) & Oi, Manabu (Research Center for Child Mental Development, Kanazawa University). Assessment of Expressive Prosody in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. The Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology 2019, Vol.30, No.4, 329–340.

Children with autism spectrum disorders are reported to have difficulties in producing and adjusting speech prosody, but there is no comprehensive scale available in Japan that can assess their expressive prosody across different functions. This study developed and tested an assessment scale for the prosodic production skill. Parents of autistic and typically-developing children ranging from 6 to 12 years of age responded to the questionnaire that inquired about their speech characteristics. Factor analysis was conducted on data obtained from 104 respondents, acquiring four factors with 23 question items, namely, vocal naturalness, adjustment for others, speech mimicry and speaker attitude. Analysis of variance revealed that the scores for all the above subscales have significant group differences. Moreover, their total average scores were correlated with the ratings of autistic symptoms and general communication skills but not with age and non-verbal intelligence. These findings suggest that this scale would be useful as the primary assessment tool to recognize the speech profile of autistic children who need a more detailed assessment and clinical support.
yKeywordsz Autism spectrum disorders, expressive prosody, assessment scale, school-age, factor analysis